Gamification of education is a developing approach for increasing learners’ motivation and engagement by incorporating game design elements in educational environments. With the growing popularity of gamification and yet mixed success of its application in educational contexts, the current review is aiming to shed a more realistic light on the research in this field by focusing on empirical evidence rather than on potentialities, beliefs or preferences. Accordingly, it critically examines the advancement in gamifying education. The discussion is structured around the used gamification mechanisms, the gamified subjects, the type of gamified learning activities, and the study goals, with an emphasis on the reliability and validity of the reported outcomes. To improve our understanding and offer a more realistic picture of the progress of gamification in education, consistent with the presented evidence, we examine both the outcomes reported in the papers and how they have been obtained. While the gamification in education is still a growing phenomenon, the review reveals that (i) insufficient evidence exists to support the long-term benefits of gamification in educational contexts; (ii) the practice of gamifying learning has outpaced researchers’ understanding of its mechanisms and methods; (iii) the knowledge of how to gamify an activity in accordance with the specifics of the educational context is still limited. The review highlights the need for systematically designed studies and rigorously tested approaches confirming the educational benefits of gamification, if gamified learning is to become a recognized instructional approach.
The idea of incentivizing people is not new but the term “gamification” didn’t enter the mainstream vocabulary until 2010. Only a year later it became a viable trend. The growing popularity of gamification is stemming from the belief in its potential to foster motivation, behavioral changes, friendly competition and collaboration in different contexts, such as customer engagement, employee performance and social loyalty. As with any new and promising technology it has been applied in a diversity of domains, including marketing, healthcare, human resources, training, environmental protection and wellbeing. Gamification is a multidisciplinary concept spanning a range of theoretical and empirical knowledge, technological domains and platforms and is driven by an array of practical motivations (Seaborn & Fels, 2015). In an attempt to best capture the essence of the underlying concepts and practices, the term gamification has been defined in several ways, such as “the use of game design elements in non-game contexts” (Deterding, Dixon, Khaled, & Nacke, 2011), “the phenomenon of creating gameful experiences” (Hamari, Koivisto, & Sarsa, 2014), or “the process of making activities more game-like” (Werbach, 2014). Empirical work across disciplines has begun to explore how gamification can be used in certain contexts and what behavioral and experiential effects gamification has on people in the short and long terms.
Ever since its advent gamification has sparked controversy between game designers, user experience designers, game theorists and researchers in human-computer interaction (Mahnič, 2014). This controversy is reflected also in some scientific studies of gamification, which show that its effect on motivation or participation is lower than the expectations created by the hype (Broer, 2014). Even so, substantial efforts have sought to take advantage of the alleged motivational benefits of gamification approaches.
One key sector where gamification is being actively explored (mainly for its potential to motivate) is education. Motivation is among the important predictors of student academic achievements, which influences the effort and time a student spends engaged in learning (Linehan, Kirman, Lawson, & Chan, 2011). Given that games, known to engender motivation and engagement, are notably popular, the proposal to incorporate game mechanics and principles to motivate the learner is appealing. Gamification in education refers to the introduction of game design elements and gameful experiences in the design of learning processes. It has been adopted to support learning in a variety of contexts and subject areas and to address related attitudes, activities, and behaviors, such as participatory approaches, collaboration, self-guided study, completion of assignments, making assessments easier and more effective, integration of exploratory approaches to learning, and strengthening student creativity and retention (Caponetto et al. 2014). The rationality at the basis of gamifying learning is that adding elements, such as those found in games to learning activities will create immersion in a way similar to what happens in games (Codish & Ravid, 2015). This leads to the belief that by incorporating game mechanics in the design of a learning process, we can engage learners in a productive learning experience, and more generally, change their behavior in a desirable way (Holman et al. 2013). Yet, the design of successful gamification applications in education that can sustain the intended behavior changes is still more of a guessing practice than science. This fact is in line with the Gartner Hype Cycle (Gartner, 2013), a research methodology that outlines a technology’s viability for commercial success, which points out that an emerging technology first climbs the ‘peak of inflated expectations’ followed by a subsequent strong fall down into the ‘trough of disillusionment’, before reaching the ‘slop of enlightenment’, which marks the stage where its benefits and limitations are understood and demonstrated.
The Gartner model is intended for representing the level of maturity and adoption of certain emerging technologies. We maintain the view that gamification is not just a technology but also a methodology which some organizations adopt as way to increase motivation. In this aspect, gamification is not a purely marketing trend but a behavioral/affective design trend that can be applied to different areas, including education. As such, gamification is also a growing area of research. However, research efforts and trends should be driven and evaluated based on distinct factors. Thus Gartner’s model is used here metaphorically and as a comparison model. We borrow it to illustrate observed trends in emerging research areas, demonstrating some sorts of ‘peaks of inflated expectations’ and ‘enlightenments’.
In 2014 we conducted a systematic mapping study of the empirical research published between January 2010 and June 2014 intended to recognize the emerging trends within the area of applications of gamification to education and to identify patterns, educational contexts and configurations of used game elements (Dicheva et al. 2015). For classifying the research results, the study used a categorical structure (based on the topics discussed in the reviewed papers) including game elements, context of the application of gamification, gamification implementation and evaluation. Although most of the reviewed 34 papers have been reporting promising results, the review concluded that more substantial empirical research is needed to determine whether both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of the learners can be actually influenced by gamification. Given the exponential growth of publications on gamification, a year later we conducted a follow-up study covering the period July 2014–December 2015. Our goal was twofold: from one side, to complement the previous study and compare it with the findings derived from the papers published within the last year, and from another, to identify any shifts and new trends in this evolving field. The results from that review were published in (Dicheva and Dichev 2015).
In terms of the Gartner’s hype cycle, our first review (Dicheva et al. 2015) covered works from the rise-in-expectations period of gamification, where the reported outcomes of the early empirical work were often influenced by the hype prompting desire to demonstrate that gamification is an effective tool for motivating and engaging learners in educational contexts. We believe that the progress in the research, including educational research, unlike technological evolutions should differ from the Gartner’s hype cycle and evolve independently of media attention using instead scientific indicators for recognizing promising trends and thus minimizing inflated expectations. More importantly, the research efforts should be directed at understanding the phenomenon triggering the new interest and at generating evidence for or against the trend causing that interest. This suggests that the research should progress following a pattern different from the Gartner’s hype cycle and marked by stages, such as early studies, emerging research area, research topics formation, etc. In this sense, our second review was intended to take another snapshot in an attempt to verify this view. Despite the growing body of studies, we found the level of understanding of how to promote engagement and learning by incorporating game design elements to be questionable. In parallel, a significant part of the empirical research was nonetheless reporting success stories and possibly contributing to the ‘inflated expectations’. Because the empirical studies (on gamification) explore the unknown, uncertainty is an unavoidable part of the investigations. While the publication of valid and reliable studies reduces the uncertainty and adds to the knowledge on gamifying education, thus helping to shape future research in the field, invalid or unreliable findings obscure our understanding of the studied phenomenon. In this context and unlike the systematic mapping studies, the goal of this critical review is to see how the new studies are shaping the evolving research in educational gamification. In particular, compared to the previous reviews the focus here is shifted to analyzing and critically appraising the collected evidence from the latest empirical research with the aim of distinguishing facts from hypotheses or opinions. From this perspective, the present review adds to the first two by trying to subject educational gamification research to similar standards as in social or health sciences.
Accordingly, in this article the focus is on analyzing the understanding of the motivational mechanisms provided by gamification in educational settings and its impact on learning. The guiding questions in this context were:
With the growing popularity of gamification and yet mixed opinions about its successful application in educational contexts, the current review is aiming to shed a more realistic light on the research in this field focusing on empirical evidence rather than on potentialities, beliefs and preferences.
On the technical side, the article includes several tables that summarize and add to the information provided in the text. The article also includes two appendices that summarize the relevant features of the reviewed studies.
In search for empirical research papers, that is, papers based on actual observations or experiments on educational gamification, we searched the following databases: Google Scholar, ACM Digital Library, IEEE Explore and ScienceDirect using the following search terms: (gamification OR gamify OR gameful) AND (education OR learning OR training) AND (since 2014). In the cases when the OR option was not available in the provided Boolean search functionality, an equivalent search strategy was carried out through multiple searches with alternative terms. This search yielded a total of 4998 results depicted in Table 1. We have chosen the definition of (Deterding et al., 2011) for gamification (“the use of game design elements in non‐gaming contexts”) to measure each found publication for relevance. Accordingly, publications discussing full-fledged games were filtered out. Peer-reviewed empirical research papers where no findings were reported were also excluded. For example, purely descriptive papers such as (Morrison & DiSalvo, 2014), which describes the implementation of gamification within Khan Academy, were not included. At the end of this step, all papers that appeared in the review presented in (Dicheva et al., 2015) were also filtered out. The review was restricted to papers appearing in the searched databases between June 30, 2014 and December 31, 2015. The result was a list of 51 empirical research papers. In sum, in the past one and a half years, several hundred articles pertaining to gamification in education have been published however only 51 studies met our criteria and are reviewed in this article.
The paper grouping, based on the strengths of the presented evidence, reveals that the high expectations for positive outcomes from gamified learning are not confirmed by the results of the reviewed empirical studies (see Fig. 1).
The examination of the papers shows that from the 41 ABC empirical studies only 15 present conclusive evidences for the reported outcomes. In those 15 papers, the findings related to the benefits of gamification are mixed: 12 studies present evidence for positive effects of gamification in educational settings, while 3 present evidence for negative effects. A surprising fact is that the vast majority of the empirical works (25 studies) report inconclusive outcomes, which means that there is no basis for confidence in the reported results. Such outcomes obscure the level of progress in the area of educational gamification. Table 10 and Table 11 below are obtained from Table 6 and Table 7, correspondingly, by eliminating the studies marked as inconclusive. With this relatively small number of (15) papers and a diverse specter of game elements and activities, the presented outcomes are insufficient to draw definitive conclusions on the effectiveness of gamification on students’ engagement, learning or participation. This judgement can be interpreted as an answer to the first guiding question about the existing empirical evidence for the impact of gamification on motivational processes and effectiveness of learning. Currently, there is a dearth of quality empirical evidence to support general claims of the impact of gamification on student’ learning and motivation. Whilst 12 studies report encouraging outcomes, they cover a range of specific combinations of game elements, specific activities and outcomes and thus do not support practical generalization. It would be short-sighted to assume that gamified implementations with the same configurations of game elements would function similarly across different educational contexts. For example, (Hakulinen et al., 2015) present convincing evidence that points, badges and leaderboard incorporated in online Java exercises increases the use of an open learning environment. However, with the current understanding of the motivational mechanisms afforded by gamification, we cannot generalize this claim to other activities, game element combinations or academic subjects. In general, studies reporting positive results from using a specific combination of game elements do not promote the understanding of the causal effect of the combination, as it is unclear whether the combination or a particular element led to the positive outcome (e.g. Bonde et al., 2014; Jang et al., 2015). Negative results such as those of Hanus and Fox (2015), who reported that badges, leaderboard, virtual coins, and pseudonyms incorporated in a communication course can have a detrimental effect on students’ motivation, satisfaction, and empowerment, help understand the limits of gamification. Again, the results obtained from such studies should be interpreted in a restricted manner, for the specific combinations of game elements, gamified activity, academic subject, and age group. The piecemeal approach observed in the reviewed studies slows down the advancement in the understanding of the effect of incorporating game elements in learning activities. From the 14 studies listed in the two tables, with 14 different combinations of game elements and 15 different gamified activities, it is difficult to derive useful information on how to gamify a new (different) activity with predictable outcomes. For example, two papers (Hakulinen et al., 2015) and (Landers & Landers, 2015) report positive outcomes for using single game elements, but one is for badges and the other one for leaderboards. On the other hand, two of the studies reporting negative results deal with Mathematics (Attali & Arieli-Attali, 2015; Long & Aleven, 2014). But, in these two cases, the game elements, the learning activities, the student level and the gender vary. In addition, the mix of badges, levels, leaderboards, progress, feedback, status and avatars used in the conclusive studies makes it hard to know which of these elements actually worked. Furthermore, the fundamental differences in the studied educational contexts hamper the transfer of experimented practices from one learning situation to another. All this suggests a need for a more systematic program of experimental studies.
Table 10 Categorization of studies falling into a single category: Behavioral (B), Affective (A) or Cognitive (C)
Table 11 Categorization of studies falling in two categories: Behavioral and Cognitive (B + C), Affective and Cognitive (A + C), Affective and Behavioral (A + B)
We note that our judgment in studying inconclusiveness can be viewed as rather subjective. Therefore, Table 12 presents the papers judged as “inconclusive” along with a short explanation for placing them in this group. In several cases our judgment simply conveys the paper’s conclusion where the authors themselves acknowledge that the results of the study should be interpreted with caution.
Table 12 Inconclusive studies with reasons for this categorizationWhile it seems apparent that gamification has the potential to create enhanced learning environments, there is still insufficient evidence that it (1) produces reliable, valid and long-lasting educational outcomes, or (2) does so better than traditional educational models. There is still insufficient empirical work that investigates the educational potential of gamification in a rigorous manner. Increasing the number of studies that use randomized controlled trials or quasi-experimental designs will increase the scientific robustness. The continued (and coordinated) collection of evidence, that is, data that substantiate the successes and failures of gamification, remains crucial for building an empirical knowledge base and consolidating best practices, extracting guidelines and eventually developing predictive theories. It is necessary to strengthen the methodical base of gamified learning and systematically enlarge the body of evidence that explains what factors and conditions produce desirable outcomes. The empirical research should thereby not just be fixated on the pros of gamified learning, but also be open to the cons and the conditions when gamification for learning should be avoided (Linehan et al., 2011; Westera, 2015).
Indirectly related to the conclusiveness of the reported results are the measurements used. A significant number of the studies (15) are using performance as a measure of the effect that gamification has on the studied activities. This is understandable for several reasons. First, the driving criterion for adopting any technology in education is whether and how much it can improve learning. Second, one can argue that high learner performance provides evidence of learners motivation since performance has been shown to correlate with learner’s motivation. However, such an approach is imperfect. Performance is an indirect measure of motivation that is influenced by many non-motivational factors such as ability, prior knowledge, and quality of instruction, while motivation is the actual driving force which makes individuals want to do something and help them continue doing it. Therefore, it is beneficial to understand the motivational triggers that engage learners. This suggests a need of studies that utilize more reliable measures of motivation and characterize better how gamification influences learner motivation and consequently how it improves learner engagement and outcomes. Motivation is associated with a number of learning related concepts such as engagement, effort, goals, focus of attention, self-efficacy, confidence, achievement, interest, etc. Improving our understanding of motivational aspects of gamification will enable us to predict its effect on the related concepts. In addition, it will help improve the gamification design, in particular, how to design an appropriate gamified experience that strengthens the motivation of a given population of learners and leads to desirable learning outcomes.
Gamification is growing as an area of both practice and research. The majority of the studies reviewed in the previous sections lack a theoretical underpinning that can help understand the researchers’ motivation and the justification for how their gamification approach is supported by a theoretical framework. For completeness of the review, in this section we outline theoretical works underpinning the use of gamification in education, published within the review period. Overall, the bulk of theoretical research addressing gamification maintains that focusing on points and rewards rather than on play and intrinsic engagement cannot always meet the goal of desired behavior change by catering to the intrinsic values of learners (Hansch et al., 2015; Songer & Miyata, 2014; Tomaselli et al., 2015). This suggests a user-centered approach in the design of gamified systems, characterized by a focus on the needs and desires of learners. A new line of research is taking steps towards developing a theory of educational gamification by combining motivational and learning theories aimed at linking gamification to practical education (Landers, 2015; Landers, Bauer, Callan, & Armstrong, 2015) or by developing a framework for integrating gamification with pedagogy (Tulloch, 2014) or psychology of games (Lieberoth, 2015).
Tulloch (2014) maintains that gamification is a product of an overlooked history of pedagogic refinement, a history of training that is effective, but largely ignored, namely the process of games teaching players how to play. He challenges the evolving concept of gamification, conceptualizing it not as a simple set of techniques and mechanics, but as a pedagogic heritage and an alternative framework for training and shaping participant behavior that has at its core the concepts of entertainment and engagement. Yet, Biro (2014) considers gamification as a new educational theory, alongside of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism and connectivism.
Songer and Miyata (2014) propose to deviate from using simple game elements often found in gamification approaches and move to a “gameful” experience that fosters intrinsic motivation of players. The authors address the issue of gamifying educational contexts with discussions about gamer motivations, the relationship between games and play, and designs for optimal learning within games. Based on the theoretical foundations of behavioral psychology, anthropology and game studies, the authors propose a model for the design and evaluation of playful experiences in learning environments inspired by game design.
With related concerns, (Tomaselli et al., 2015) attempts to analyze the most engaging factors for gamers in the context of gamification by questioning the relevance of some of the most used gamification strategies like attributing points and badges or simple reputation elements to users. The authors explore how engagement is associated with a variety of types of contemporary digital games. The results show that although there is support for the importance of competition against peers (contrary to the current prevailing understanding), the challenge of overcoming the game’s obstacles and mastering them is what matters the most to players, regardless of the type of the game. The takeaway message is that the gamified system designers should not be so concerned with rankings and online comparisons to encourage users to compete against each other, but with their use as a personal reference, creating challenging environments and guidance for users to achieve their mastery interests.
Landers (2015) advocates that no single theory is able to explain gamification. Accordingly, he presents a set of theories organized in two categories, motivational and learning theories that are most likely to explain the effects of gamification when it is implemented as an instructional intervention. Among learning theories, Landers identifies two major frameworks to describe the learning outcomes of gamification: the theory of gamified instructional design and classic conditioning theories of learning. He also identifies three major types of motivational theories: expectancy-based theories, goal-setting theory, and the self-determination theory.
The theory of gamified learning proposed by (Landers et al., 2015) provides two specific causal pathways by which gamification can affect learning and a framework for testing these pathways. Their theory identifies two specific processes by which gamification can affect learning. In both processes the gamification is aimed at affecting learning-related behavior. In the first one, this behavior moderates the relationship between instructional quality and learning. In the second, this behavior mediates the relationship between game elements and learning. Critically, one or both of these processes may be involved in any particular gamification effort. For gamification to be effective, it must successfully alter an intermediary learner behavior or learner attitude. That behavior or attitude must then itself cause changes in learning directly or must strengthen the effectiveness of existing instruction.
In their explorative study, Hansch et al. (2015) examine the motivational potential of gamification in online learning. Through reviewing ten platforms and an in-depth analysis, they explore how the motivational potential of gamification mechanics and the social and interactive elements in online learning can be effectively combined to build a community of engaged learners. The authors conclude that the starting point in gamifying online education should be learners’ needs, motivations and goals, rather than a platform-centric approach that strives to use technical features to hit some pre-defined performance metrics.
According to Lieberoth (2015), it might not be the game itself that stimulates individuals, but rather the packaging: the fact that an activity resembles a game. The simple framing of an activity as a “game” can potentially alter an individual’s behavior. To demonstrate this insight Lieberoth designed an experiment focusing on the psychological effects of framing tasks as games versus including game mechanics. The outcomes indicate that engagement and enjoyment increased significantly due to the psychological effects of framing the task as a game. Furthermore, no actual increased interest or enjoyment was measured by adding actual game mechanics to the task, when it was already framed as a game. This study reveals an interesting psychological perspective of gamification in educational environments: merely making an activity seem like a game impacts learners’ engagement.
In addition to the gamification works with theoretical, conceptual or methodological orientation, five literature reviews (Borges, Durelli, Reis, & Isotani, 2014; Caponetto et al., 2014; Dicheva & Dichev, 2015; Faiella & Ricciardi, 2015; Gerber, 2014) have been published over the last two years. While these reviews synthesize the empirical research on gamification in education, neither of them provides a critical analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the research findings of the reviewed studies. The present review addresses this gap by evaluating analytically the validity of the reported results.
The research on gamification frameworks, platforms, and toolsets that help making the design and development of gamification applications easier, faster, and cheaper has also been showing progress in the last few years. Since the current research on gamification specific frameworks is not explicitly driven by educational objectives, we refer the interested readers to a corresponding literature review on this topic (Mora et al., 2015).
While the reviewed theoretical studies are touching interesting points, the covered topics are insufficient for complete understanding of the motivational mechanisms of gamification in educational context. Without a theoretical framework backing the design of the studies and the interpretation of their results, it is problematic to select an appropriate gamification structure or to differentiate which of the employed game mechanisms and principles were essential for arriving at successful outcomes. Hence, there is a need of theoretical and empirical studies capable of mutually advancing each other. This will allow bridging the identified gaps in order to understand how gamification in education works, when it works best, and its limits and key strategies.
Gamification in education is an approach for encouraging learners’ motivation and engagement by incorporating game design principles in the learning environment. The importance of sustaining students’ motivation has been a long-standing challenge to education. This explains the significant attention that gamification has gained in educational context - its potential to motivate students. However, the process of integrating game design principles within varying educational experiences appears challenging and there are currently no practical guidelines for how to do so in a coherent and efficient manner. The discussion in the present review has been structured based on the combinations of the game elements used, the gamified subjects, the type of learning activities, and the identified goals, ending with a thorough discussion on the reliability and validity of the reported outcomes. The review confirmed that the research on gamification is very diverse with respect to the focus of the studies, the reported outcomes and methodological approaches. It also indicates that the research focus at present is mainly on empirical studies with less attention to the theoretical considerations. Moreover, the majority of the studies target college students. A number of gamification approaches, driven by specific objectives, have been applied to support learning and related activities in a variety of educational contexts. Studies on how distinct categories of learners are affected by gamification, what to measure as an outcome, and how to add a gamified layer to a core activity are also emerging. Despite the fact that gamification in education is still growing phenomenon, the reviewed studies indicate that (i) The practice of gamifying learning has outpaced researchers’ understanding of its mechanisms and methods, (ii) Insufficient high-quality evidence exists to support the long-term benefits of gamification in educational context, and (iii) The understanding of how to gamify an activity depending on the specifics of the educational context is still limited.
We have identified a growing number of studies reporting empirical evidences for the effectiveness of gamification in educational context. At the same time, it is noticeable that a growing body of reported results is backed by inconclusive and insufficient evidence for making valid claims about the efficacy of gamification in education. Possible reasons for this are from one side the hype to publish on gamification and from another, the addressing of an overly broad research question based on limited supportive evidence. Whether gamification motivates students, improves learning or increases participation, are too broad questions. Instead, the focus should be narrowed to questions of the type: whether game design elements G are effective for learners of type L participating in activity of type A. All these indicate a need of a systematic program of experimental studies mapping game elements to the learning and motivational specifics of individual (groups of) learners. Another grey area that deserves attention is how to avoid gamification scenarios that can harm learning.
Gamification is a psychologically driven approach targeting motivation–the desire and willingness to do something. From technical perspective, it is a motivational design problem. While the majority of the reviewed studies do analyze specific educational effects of gamification (on learning, attainment, participation), their focus is often aside from motivation. When motivation is targeted, it is typically examined through observable indicators, such as grades, attendance, etc. that are not always directly linked to it. As a result, the educational benefits of gamification in terms of increasing student motivation or linking this motivation to learning outcomes are still not well understood.
While the effort to understand the effects of gamification on learning is expanding, there is a need for exploring the effect of game design elements in its broad sense including game mechanics and game dynamics and across learning contexts. The observed emphasis on points, badges, and leaderboards is too narrow to address the relevant motivational factors. It is also crucial to understand the target population of a gamified system in order to gamify a learning activity successfully. Specifically, the unique needs and preferences of each group of learners, along with the particular learning objectives relevant to that group must inform the choice of game elements.
A comparison of the results of this survey with the previous ones, which marked the climb to the inflated expectation, indicates a trend of decline of the expectations. The rise and fall of expectations for applying gamification in educational contexts is nothing out of the ordinary. Most emerging technologies and the accompanying research go through an initial period of hype as described by the Gartner’s Hype Cycle, before evolving for a second period of measured popularity, in which it attains maturity and meets the expectations (Naik, 2015). There are several assumptions underlying the usefulness of gamification in educational context, such as gamification is motivating, gamification is engaging, gamification can improve attendance and participation. However, research remains inconclusive on these assumptions. Educational contexts in which gamification may be particularly useful have not been confirmed yet. This does not mean though that gamification cannot be used with success in a learning context. It simply means that the educational benefits of gamification have not been scientifically confirmed yet. Only continued theoretical and rigorous systematic empirical work in varying gamification settings and across contexts will enable us to establish a practical, comprehensive, and methodical understanding of the benefits of applying gamification in educational contexts.
This terminology has been popularized through the book “For the win: How game thinking can revolutionize your business” by Werbach and Hunter and a series of Coursera’s MOOCs.
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. HRD 1623236 “Targeted Infusion Project: Increasing Student Motivation and Engagement in STEM Courses through Gamification”.
Both authors contributed equally towards this article. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.